Bibliography on Dispute Resolution in Higher Education
(Version 5.0)
Compiled by Bill Warters, Ph.D.

Aaron, R. M. (1992). "Student Academic Dishonesty: Are Collegiate Institutions Addressing the Issue?" NASPA Journal 29(2): 107-113.
This article summarizes the results of a survey of 257 chief student affairs officers at four-year private and public community colleges. Data are compiled on institutions with academic integrity codes and adjudication guidelines, the institutions methods for disseminating academic integrity information to students and to faculty, the institutional officer responsible for adjudicating acts of student academic dishonesty, and other institutional activities that address student academic integrity matters.

Afzalur, R. M., G. F. Buntzman, et al. (1999). "Empirical Study of the Stages of Moral Development and Conflict Management Styles, An." International Journal of Conflict Management, The 10(2): 17.
This study investigates the relationship between varying levels of moral development and styles of interpersonal conflict resolution.

Alford, H. J. (1980). Power and Conflict in Continuing Education: Survival and Prosperity for All? The Wadsworth Series in Continuing Education, Wadsworth Pub. Co.

Allen, M. T., M. (1998). "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: Examining the National Association of Scholars and Teachers for Democratic Culture Debate." 27.
This paper considers the ongoing debate between two organizations (National Association of Scholars and Teachers for a Democratic Culture) in higher education. The rhetorical positions of each side resemble those of the "cold war" between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950's and 1960's where each side created a mirror image of the other based on ethnocentric perceptions. While the image of cold war is a metaphor, the metaphor is developed and articulated by the use of images and stories that sustain the understanding of the conflict. A mirror image can develop when the parties in conflict believe that: (1) there are only two sides; (2) the conflict is zero-sum; and (3) their side is losing. When disagreeing bodies create a mirror image of the other side, a destructive cycle of rhetorical imagery is generated that prevents resolution of the conflict. (Contains a table with examples of mirror image rhetoric and 34 references.) (Author)

Altbac, P., R. Laufer, et al. (1971). Academic Supermarkets: A Critical Case Study of a Multiversity, Jossey-Bass.
This edited volume chronicles some of the student upheaval evident in the late 1960s in the United States. Includes articles on topics such as the "Anatomy of Faculty Conflict", "Departmental Clashes", "Four Decades of Activism" (charting student initiated conflicts from 1930-1968) and "Generational Conflict."

Ambler, M. (1996). "Respect for Three Sovereigns." Tribal College 8(1): 8-11.
Discusses the lack of awareness of and respect for tribal governments in non-Indian society, arguing that mainstream educational institutions should include instruction about tribal governments and their powers in civics classes. Describes tribal models of dispute resolution, suggesting that they can also serve as models for the general society. (AJL)

Anderson, J. A. and S. M. Richardson (1999). Faculty Responsibility for Promoting Conflict-Free College Classrooms. Promoting Civility: A Teaching Challenge, Jossey-Bass.
This chapter examines issues associated with the classroom climate for a diverse student body and the role that faculty and students play in maintaining a tension-free, democratic, and effective learning environment.

Anderson, S. K. and T. G. Davies (2000). "Ethical Decision Making Model: A Necessary Tool for Community College Presidents and Boards of Trustees, An." Community College Journal of Research and Practice 24(9): 711-727.
This article presents an ethical decision-making model that can help presidents and boards maneuver through difficult situations.

Annunziato, F. and S. Holton (1995). "From Conflict to Accord: Collective Bargaining at the Academy." Conflict Management in Higher Education 92: 51-57.

Anonymous (1991). Campus Climate and the Search for Community within Diversity, New York State Education Dept., Office of Excellence and Access.
This publication summarizes proceedings of a working group session convened to discuss ways to encourage efforts of colleges and universities to increase the sense of community on their campuses. It is noted that the sense of community has been diluted over the years due to the great diversity of students, both racial and cultural, that now participate in postsecondary education. The participants consist of over 100 faculty and administrators from 80 public and independent postsecondary institutions in New York State as well as members of the staff of the New York State Education Department. The following sessions are summarized: (1) " Confronting racial, sexual, religious, and ethnic conflict on campus"; (2) " Legal Issues: Freedom of speech and academic freedom"; (3) "Curriculum of Inclusion"; and (4) " Enhancing Community on campus". Appendices include the conference agenda, the conference evaluation forms, the conference evaluation summary, 68 suggested readings on campus climate, and a list of conference registrants.

Anonymous (1994). "Universities Turn Toward Mediation Techniques." 49(2): 4.
Disputes in colleges and universities have mushroomed over the past 2 decades, creating the need for alternatives in dealing with them. The American Arbitration Association and the National Association of College and University Attorneys conducted a mediator training workshop in April 1994 in response to such need.

Anonymous (1998). Racial Issues Prompt Protests on 4 Campuses. Chronicle of Higher Education.

Artman, C. (1997). Directory of Law School Alternative Dispute Resolution Courses and Programs: A Directory of Courses, Clinics, Professors, Key Contacts, Course Descriptions, and Teaching Methods in Dispute Resolution, Section of Dispute Resolution American Bar Association.

Asbury, B. A. (1992). "Campus Life in a Time of Culture War." Soundings 75(4): 465-75.
The Vanderbilt University (Tennessee) chaplain describes and gives his perspective on a "culture war" on his campus arising from escalation of a religious conflict. The role of the chaplain in the modern university is examined. (MSE)

Austin, A. E. (1990). "Faculty Cultures, Faculty Values." New directions for Institutional Research 68(Winter): 61-74.
This piece suggests that colleges and universities, recognize and build on the several, sometimes conflicting cultures that affect faculty members' values and behaviors.

Austin, A. E. (1998). "Collegial Conversation as Metaphor and Strategy for Academic Staff Development." South African Journal of Higher Education 12(3).
Though the academy is dedicated to the exchange of ideas, academic staff find numerous barriers to such communication, such as departmental divisions and persistent time pressures. Recognizing this challenge, this article explores collegial conversation as both a metaphor for what staff development can involve and a strategy for implementing academic staff development. Metaphorically, the notion of collegial conversation suggests the importance of inquiry, dialogue, and connection as key elements of staff development. Moving the metaphorical image into practical application, the article describes six types of collegial conversations: Topical Lunch Seminars, Share Fairs, Colleague Partnerships, Career Stage Groups, Action Research Teaching/Learning Project Groups, and Department Chairperson Discussion Groups. Such collegial conversations contribute to capacity building for individuals, departments, and institutions.

Avery, M. (1990). "Mediation of Race-related Conflicts on Campus." Conciliation Quarterly 9(3): 5-7.

Bacchi, C. (1994). "Consent or Coercion? Removing Conflict of Interest from Staff-Student Relations." Australian Universities' Review 37(2): 55-61.
A model for regulating faculty-student consensual sexual relations in colleges and universities is offered. The model focuses on both removing conflict of interest and expanding women's ability to define the kinds of relationships they want. Standards for conflict of interest and unethical sexual advances are outlined. (MSE)

Bailey, S. K. (1971). "Preparing Administrators for Conflict Resolution."

Baldridge, V. (1971). Power and Conflict in the University: Research in the Sociology of Complex Organizations, John Wiley & Sons.
"This classic book, based on Baldridge's experiences working at NYU during a time of great changes, argues in favor of viewing universities as political organizations as opposed to collegial, bureaucratic or purely rational systems. Baldridge explains "Rather than a holistic enterprise, the university is a pluralistic system, often fractured by conflicts along the lines of disciplines, faculty subgroups, student subcultures, splits between administrators and faculties, and rifts between professional schools. (p. 107)" -Conflict Management in Higher Education Report

Baldwin, R. G. (1997). "Academic Civility Begins in the Classroom." Teaching Excellence 9(8).

Bangura, A. K. (1998). How Teachers Can Identify and Help To Change and Retain Deviant Students: Politeness, Decision-Making, Leadership and Conflict Resolution Strategies, Bowie State University Faculty Development Seminar.
This paper is about assisting teachers to identify and help to change and retain deviant students. The major focus is on the instruction and training of teachers on how alcohol and drugs affect a person's body and behavior, and the effective methods for helping to change that behavior. In order to accomplish this objective, the paper is divided into the following separate, but interrelated, sections: (1) Introduction: Teachers Can Make a Difference; (2) A Theoretical Reverberation on Alcohol, Drugs, and Deviant Behavior; (3) The Physiology of Alcohol and Drug Abuse; (4) Politeness Strategies for Communicating with Deviant Students; (5) The Teacher as Decision-Maker; (6) The Teacher as Leader; (7) The Teacher as Conflict Resolver; (8) Conclusion. (Author/EMK)

Barnes, B. (1998). Designing a Conflict Resolution System for the University of Hawaii System: Economic Considerations and the Unionized Campus. Reflective Practice in Institutionalizing Conflict Resolution in Higher Education, Consortium on Negotiation and Conflict Resolution.

Barnes, T. J. and D. E. Khorey (1989). "Effects and Use of Administrative Determinations in Subsequent Employment Litigation, The " Journal of College and University Law 16(2): 189-200.
This article examines legal effects (e.g., res judicata and collateral estoppel) of various administrative arrangements for the resolution of employment disputes and offers suggestions on how legal representatives of colleges and universities can take advantage of these effects by planning and coordinating defense efforts. (Author/DB)

Barnett, V. M. J. (1969). Confrontation - Catalyst for Consensus, Association of College and University Housing Officers.
The main question discussed in this paper is whether the confrontations which have been taking place on college campuses these past few years provide the basis for a new consensus which will enable all to move forward with confidence and a renewed sense of achievement. In discussing these confrontations, however, several fallacies need to be dispelled: fallacy 1, disruptions typically occur at big, impersonal universities; fallacy 2, only a small percentage of students are involved; and fallacy 3, the Viet Nam war and the draft are basic causes of student unrest. The author feels that student radicals do not really wish to escape from authority, but rather that they badly need some authority which can be respected and in which they can place confidence. Young people also have a short time horizon, both looking backward and looking forward. They have a sense of urgency for the immediate as well as a growing disbelief in progress, or a growing disbelief in the gradual nature of progress. What is required from adults is neither indignant repression nor disgusted withdrawal, but constructive and patient efforts to respond on the campuses to the legitimate criticisms and to help restore an atmosphere in which there can be a more fully shared responsibility for the changes that need to be made. (KJ)

Barott, J. (1992). "Case Study of the Micro Politics of a Higher Educational Sub-Unit, A " Dissertation Abstracts 54(02A): 224.
The target of this study was the development and application of a system of explanation to make sense of the micropolitics of organizations. The research sought to determine whether, how, and with what effect a combination of relevant micro-political concepts could be woven together on the way to coherent theory. An organizational sub-unit and its politics were examined to uncover the policy development processes. The organization selected for the study was the Graduate School of Education (GSE) at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB). The research was a case study of a single, relatively small unit of a larger complex organization. Because the focus of this research was the social context and its patterns, field study research was used as the methodology to best answer the research questions. Unobtrusive measures such as documents, written records, and space utilization were the principle data base used in this case study. Initial categories examined were derived primarily from an initial exploration of the data. These categories were then used to guide further data collection. This case study was an in-depth analysis of some aspects of the history of this organization. The assumption was that you cannot understand the current crises or competencies of an organization without seeing how the organization has been shaped over time. In addition, the critical moments and conflicts that resulted both in shaping the policy making system as well as the basic values that were maximized by that system were identified. This study located and examined three general areas or dimensions of organizational conflict. A number of other areas could have been used, but this study focused on these three. The first was between two competing core technologies of the organization's system of production. The second was between top-down and bottom-up systems of governance. The third was between the organization and its relevant environments. All three areas were arenas of potential and periodic conflict in this organization. There was an inherent tension that existed on all sides of these cleavages.

Battaglini, D. J. and R. J. Schenkat (1987). Fostering Cognitive Development in College Students - The Perry and Toulmin Models, ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills, Urbana, Ill.
Intended for college instructors interested in promoting and developing intellectual abilities in their students, this publication details the Perry and Toulmin models of cognitive development. The first section explains the Perry model of dualistic students, who are comfortable in a framework of absolute knowledge and unquestionable right and wrong answers, multiplistic students, who recognize multiple perspectives but are unable to evaluate and weigh them adequately, and relativistic students, who are comfortable questioning authority and see knowledge as relative to their own frames of reference. A second section suggests implications of this model for classroom instruction, followed by a section providing information on how to find out more about the Perry model. A fourth section looks at the Toulmin model of cognitive development, which is characterized by a six-step system of rational argumentation, and how the model may be applied in the classroom. A final section notes that relativistic students are, by definition, working within the Toulmin model, and suggests that academic study demands that students work on a relativistic level. (JC)

Baur, E. J. (1983). "College Curricula in Conflict Resolution - The Emergence of a Discipline."
It is argued that, while conflict regulation has typically been integrated into the college curriculum within a larger, subject-specific program, there is sufficient need and substance to warrant a formal curriculum. Some such interdisciplinary programs already exist. (MSE)

Bayer, A. E. and A. W. Astin (1969). Campus Disruption During 1968-1969, American Council on Education Washington D.C. Office of Research.
At the end of the 1968-1969 academic year, a survey was undertaken to determine the nature and extent of campus protests, how their frequency and types vary, how institutional responses to them differ, what institutional policies and practices have been changed because of them, and other related matters. The survey instrument was a questionnaire which collected data for the entire year on the mode and incidence of protests, major issues, results, consequences, and administrative changes made. The facts in this report represent the first attempt to link campus unrest with a variety of institutional characteristics (control, type, size, selectivity) using a representative national sample of 427 US colleges and universities. Study findings indicate that most institutions are attempting to respond in meaningful ways to major campus protests. Discipline has been a frequent response to violence; but major efforts have been made to modify curricula and racial policies, and to increase the freedom and power of students. The data also show that a majority of institutions, including those where major protests did not occur, made substantive changes in rules and policy during 1968 and 1969. One conclusion of the study is that US campuses, which have always been centers of protest and social criticism, are still likely to experience more unrest in years to come. The questionnaire and an analysis of the data are included. (WM)

Beaulieu, R. J. (1995). "When Classroom Voices Collide: Emotions, Discourse and Conflict in a Graduate Seminar " Dissertation Abstracts 57(03A): 274.
This dissertation explores the role of shame and anger in the adult learning process through close observation of the interactional dynamics of a professor and a student in a graduate seminar. The professor-student bond is found to be based on the attachment and attunement of these two people. Through close scrutiny of the verbal, paralinguistic and behavioral expressions, the (d)evolution of this important social relationship was documented and analyzed. This study draws upon interpretive social theory and discourse analysis to advance an approach to the interactional accomplishment of actual learning encounters. The focus is on a single meeting of a graduate seminar in the social sciences in which the social bond between the professor and a student becomes severely damaged. The hypothesis of this study is that acts of disrespect and unacknowledged shame lead to anger and aggression. The plausibility of this proposition is demonstrated through detailed description and analysis of interactional cues observable in a video recording of this seminar, and through use of the two central participants' own interpretations of this session as revealed in interviews. In an attempt to investigate the politics of classroom practices, a separate chapter links this interactional analysis to broader themes emerging in critical theories of education and the balance between student voice and teacher authority. Drawing upon the interpretations of these two central participants, I explore the meanings they attached to this encounter. Topics include the role of gender and ethnic heritage in this conflictive encounter, and the participants' different pedagogical ideals. In conclusion, I advance a theory of 'emotional learning and teaching,' suggesting that learning is not only a rational, goal-oriented cognitive process, but that emotional strands are woven into the interactional fabric of any educational encounter. Mutual respect is found to be an essential precondition for maintaining the social bond between professors and graduate students. Graduate classrooms are constructed by members through their interactions and through their relationships, and these constructions shape the teaching and learning process.

Bechler, C. (1995). "Looking Beyond the Immediate Crisis Response: Analyzing the Organizational Culture to Understand the Crisis."
Presents an analysis of the organizational culture at Olivet College in Michigan. Discusses the legacy, roots, and history of the institution; the recent organizational history; and the changing nature of the organization at the time of a racial conflict in the spring of 1992 that gained both state and national attention. (SR)

Becker, T. L., ed. and R. A. Couto, ed. (1996). Teaching Democracy by Being Democratic. Praeger Series in Transformational Politics and Political Science, Praeger.
This volume links theory to practice by featuring tested techniques in teaching democracy by being democratic in the classroom. The book is divided into three parts and six chapters with an introduction presenting a theoretical and analytical framework of democracy and democratic pedagogy. Part 1 features "The Democratic Classroom" and includes (1) "Students in Charge" (William R. Caspary) and (2) "Personal Empowerment" (Louis Herman). Part 2, "Beyond Classrooms and Internships," contains (3) "Service Learning: Integrating Community Issues and the Curriculum" (Richard A. Couto) and (4) "Applying Democratic Theory in Community Organizations (Richard Guarasci; Craig A. Rimmerman). Part 3, "Innovative Democratic Institutions within the University," discusses (5) "The Community Mediation Service: A Model for Teaching Democracy and Conflict Resolution" (Christa Daryl Slaton) and (6) "Televote: Interactive, Participatory Polling" (Theodore L. Becker). The volume concludes with an afterword, a bibliography, and an index. (CB)

Beeler, K. D. (1985). Institutions with Identified Conflict-Resolution (Mediation) Programs, Eastern Illinois University.

Beeler, K. D. (1986). "Campus Mediation: A Promising Complement to Student Judicial Processes." SACSA Journal 7(1): 38-45.

Begin, J. P. (1980). "Development of the Neutral Function in Labor Relations, The " New Directions for Higher Education 8(4): 81-89.
A review of the emergence of the neutral function in the context of collective bargaining to determine whether it might have application to higher education impasses of the l980s is outlined. A history of mediation and arbitration in labor disputes in the United States is provided.

Beitz, C. R. and e. al. (1973). Peace Studies: College Courses on Peace and World Order, Institute for World Order.
The publication describes 30 college courses on peace and world order. The purpose is to provide a shared conception of the substantive concerns of peace studies, of the methodological tools available for peace research, and of the potential role of peace education in the formation of a more normative social science worldview. Courses described treat one of the following seven topics: (1) Conflict, Revolution, and Peace; (2) World Order; (3) World Politics; (4) The Third World: Perspectives on Development and Justice; (5) Looking Toward the Future; (6) Social Criticism and Individual Change; and (7) the United States Context. Bibliographies of resource materials are included with each course description. (Author/RM)

Benewitz, M. C. (1974). "Modest Proposal for Improving College Arbitration, A " Arbitration Journal 29(1): 43-49.
Disputes over tenure and academic fitness rank high among controversies in higher education. But arbitrators are often unable to deal substantively and adequately with such grievances because most of the collective bargaining contracts exclude academic qualifications from the scope of their review powers. The author believes this circumstance requires reform, and his "modest proposal" is that pre-hearing conferences take place before a neutral person who would mediate disputes and screen out those that are not arbitral or have no chance of success in conventional arbitration.

Bennett, C. (1994). "Micro Politics in a University: A Case Study of Conflict Between the Academic Senate and Administration Over Campus Parking Policies." Dissertation Abstracts 55(08A): 368.
This exploratory case study examines politicized interaction between the Academic Senate and administration over parking policies at the State University, Summerville (SUS). Qualitative research methods were used to emphasize the participants' (versus the researchers' or other theoreticians') perspectives, which in turn drove the direction of analysis and construction of analytical tools. The primary data sources were documents and interviews. In general, the former provided historical details necessary for the reconstruction of the story line, while both provided insights on what happened and why. Although the analysis and findings presented throughout this study were grounded in descriptive data, they illuminated successively more abstracted relationships. In the final chapter, a simple, explanatory model is presented that may act as a potential springboard for broader generalizations and future research efforts. The constitutionally established, dual-track "shared governance" system in which parking policies were fashioned acted as the primary point of interface between the Senate's bottom-up/representative and administration's top-down/non-representative governance systems. This point of interface marked the key "fault line" cleaving the Senate and administration into policy making groups with divergent, and often mutually exclusive, values and interests. Although Senate and administration political strategies were comprised of at least several components, their chief strategic instrument seemed to be the manner in which they defined the preeminent topics driving the parking dispute. In general, the group framing the dispute around issues that were more comprehensive and consistent with their respective group values: garnered more participants on their behalf, presented their position with more passion and, concomitantly, applied more pressure on their opponents. As long as this group maintained such an escalated context or a credible escalatory threat in its absence, policy changes usually were implemented in their favor. The analysis and findings from this research hopefully illuminated useful concepts and methodological tools that may be applied in future research on organizations comprised of representative and non-representative governance systems. This may be particularly useful given the increasingly more frequent calls from all sectors of society for more democratic organizations and policy making processes.

Bensimon, E. M. (1990). New President and Understanding the Campus as a Culture, The New directions for institutional research.
Seeing the institution as a culture allows a new president to experience the continuity of the institution and become part of it.

Bess, J. L. (1988). "Leadership, Conflict Management, and Researcher Motivation and Productivity in Scientific R & D Laboratories: The Case of Japan ASHE 1988 Annual Meeting Paper." 78.
A study on leadership, conflict management, research and development (R&D) worker motivation, commitment, and risk- taking propensity in universities compared with corporations and government is presented. It arose from the recognition that R&D in any developed country is critical to the continued well-being of its economy and people, and that university R&D management must continually be assessed. The three countries used in this study are Japan, the United States, and England, with focus on Japan. The following topics were examined: psychological characteristics of effective academic and industrial research leaders; styles of conflict management predominating in effective and ineffective leaders; impact of leader characteristics defined by the three independent variables on subordinate motivation and creativity; laboratory orientation; the market force effect on variables of interest; and leadership at the end of the project. Unlike the United States and England, education and industry are not closely articulated in Japan, and advanced education and training is largely relegated to on-the-job programs. In the United States individuality is tolerated and encouraged but in education, R&D is disadvantaged by its separation from industry. Four appendices include: demographic differences between corporations, universities, and government laboratories; leader attitudes and values; differences between sections rated high or low quality, and theoretical and policy implications. Contains about 175 references. (SM)

Bickel, R. D. and P. F. Lake (1994). "Re-Conceptualizing the University's Duty to Provide a Safe Learning Environment: A Criticism of the Doctrine of in Loco Parentis and the Restatement of Torts." Journal of College and University Law 20(3): 261-293.

Bigg, D. A. and E. G. Williamson (1978). "Conflict Resolution on the Campus: A Case Study."
Describes a campus conflict in hopes that information can help student personnel workers to assume a more effective role in conflict management. (Author/CJ)

Bing, R. and L. Dye (1992). "Danger of Hierarchical Decision-Making, The " Academe 78(4): 16-18.
The case of a dispute over the college faculty promotion process is examined in the context of a model of the organization of campus governance. The model describes three levels of power relationships with increasing amounts of shared responsibility between faculty and administration. A commitment to partnership is advocated. (MSE)

Bing, R. and L. Dye (1996). "Memo to the Board of Trustees: Please Meddle." Academe 82: 44-45.
The writers argue that failure on the part of college boards of trustees to involve themselves in the internal affairs of colleges is an abdication of responsibility to the public or private authorities who appointed them. This failure to become involved has resulted in unbridled executive power by college presidents. An active, interested, and "meddlesome" board is a check and balance of power and management in academia. When boards refuse to intervene, there is no means to resolve conflicts between faculty and the college president. Boards can be important stimuli for both mediation and advocacy within their institutions, and, for this reason, they must try to perfect advocacy and consensual management if they are to change the negative national perception of higher education.

Birkhoff, J. (1997). "Conflict Resolution Syllabi Anthology."

Birkhoff, J. E. and W. Warfield (1996). "Development of Pedagogy and Practicum, The " Mediation Quarterly 14(2): 93-110.
This article focuses on the development of the Applied Practice and Theory Program at George Mason Univ.'s Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution. The authors discuss the experiences of establishing a practicum in an academic program and elaborate on pedagogical realities of linking theory to practice, ethical dilemmas encountered, and implications for the development of reflective practice.

Birnbaum, R. (1980). "Creative Academic Bargaining: Managing Conflict in the Unionized College and University." 270.
The evolution of collective bargaining in higher education and factors that lead academic bargaining from destructive conflict to cooperation are examined. Academic bargaining is viewed as a form of shared authority, but one with unusual institutional and organizational problems that may lead toward destructive, rather than constructive conflict. The specific nature of the context, situation, and persons involved in bargaining, and their effect upon the nature of conflict are considered, as are perceptions, behaviors, and communication patterns that are likely to result when groups are locked into traditional bargaining structures. Behaviors and programs that may assist in conflict management and lead the parties toward more creative and constructive bargaining are suggested. A number of dispute resolution techniques that have been developed in industrial bargaining and their application in academic settings are described, as are changes in the traditional bargaining relationship that can be made prior to the initiation of bargaining, or during the bargaining interaction itself. Tactical considerations in creative bargaining, ways of increasing the problem-solving potential in the bargaining institution, the uses of third parties, and other approaches by which behaviors of the parties can change unilaterally to promote creative bargaining relationships are examined. References are included. (SW)

Birnbaum, R. (1983). "How Neutrals Can Help Bargainers in Troubled Times."
The use of neutrals in higher education collective bargaining is considered, with specific reference to a pilot project in which a neutral worked for over a year with the administration and faculty union at a two-year public community college. Eighteen propositions that may promote the creative use of third parties are offered, including the following: neutrals can help the bargaining process only when both sides wish to improve their relationships and desire the use of a third party; a neutral can provide assistance, but parties must retain control of their bargaining relationship; a neutral can help parties collect and analyze data concerning their bargaining relationship to provide insight into the problems of their negotiations process and style; a neutral can help establish structures, such as workshops, in which bargaining parties can meet to discuss the nature of their relationship, and the changes that could improve it; neutrals can suggest new structures for bargaining that may help deal with complex issues; and involvement at the table by a neutral can be accepted as nonthreatening and supportive by the parties if it is focused on process and structure, rather than advocating specific substantive positions. (SW)

Birnbaum, R. (1984). "Effects of a Neutral Third Party on Academic Bargaining Relationships and Campus Climate, The " Journal of Higher Education 55(6): 719-34.
A program of planned organizational change based on the interventions of a neutral third party used organizational development and dispute resolution techniques to alter the structure and process of academic negotiations. Analysis indicates that the interventions had no impact on campus climate but did significantly improve campus bargaining relationships. (Author/MLW)

Birnbaum, R. (1990). Negotiating in an Anarchy: Faculty Collective Bargaining and Organizational Cognition. Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, ASHE.

Birnbaum, R. and e. al. (1980). "Constructive Conflict in Academic Bargaining." New Directions in Higher Education 32: 69-79.

Birnbaum, R. and e. al. (1985). Cooperation in Academic Negotiations: A Guide to Mutual Gains Bargaining, Rutgers, The State Univ., New Brunswick, N.J. Inst. of Management and Labor Relations.
A guide to mutual gains bargaining (MGB) is presented for faculty union leaders and college administrators, as well as school systems. MGB is based on applied behavioral sciences concepts and the use of bargaining teams and emphasizes problem-solving and improving communications and campus relationships. Two different uses of the mutual gains concept are described: (1) work by a neutral third party on-campus to help renegotiate a contract and (2) a workshop with three unionized campuses. Theoretical bases for MGB are considered, with attention to intergroup competition and attribution, integrative bargaining and distributive bargaining, and intraorganizational bargaining. For each topic, a fictional dialogue at the negotiating table or in caucus is presented, followed by a nontechnical summary of theory, and exercises or simulations. This format is also used to introduce the following skills for MGB: problem-solving, issue control and fractionating conflict, organizing, and using dual-track governance. The Academic Bargaining Questionnaire is presented, along with information on use of the results, which help campus groups assess their bargaining relationship and ways to make bargaining more constructive. Finally, steps to implement MGB are covered. (SW)

Black, D. (1994). "Outside the Court: Mediating Conflicts." Perspective: The Campus Legal Monthly 9(10-Oct): 1-2.

Blimling, G. S. (1982). "Context of Conflict in the Academy: An Educational Dialectic on Faculty and Student Affairs Educators, The " College Student Affairs Journal 13(1): 4-12.

Blimling, G. S. (1991). Case Studies and Structured Group Experiences for Mediation and (Conflict Resolution) CR. The Experienced resident assistant, Kendall/Hunt.

Bloemhof, B. and D. Zorn (2000). "Leading a Workshop of Conflict Management for Teaching Assistants." Journal of Graduate Teaching Assistant Development 7(1): 39-64.
This article describes a conflict management workshop for graduate teaching assistants. It includes the workshops rationale, a detailed plan of such a workshop, and results of a survey that shows improved perceived ability to deal effectively with conflict.

Bloland, P. A. and D. B. Nowak (1968). Ombudsman: An Informal Survey of the Implementation of the Ombudsman Concept, Summer, 1968, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
College and university response to the sense of anomie experienced by students --especially those attending large, complex institutions-- has been to implement several plans for reducing the students' feelings of impersonality and estrangement. In one of these plans, based on the "ombudsman" concept, students register complaints to one individual, who conducts an impartial investigation, reports to the appropriate authority, and makes other efforts to achieve desired results. An informal survey of Western colleges and universities was made in August, 1968 to ascertain to what extent this kind of plan has been utilized. Twenty-nine of the responding institutions had studied the concept, 24 had not, 9 had rejected it, and only 7 had some form of ombudsman program. Student and staff reactions to the program ranged from neutral to positive. Of the 29 institutions that had studied the concept, 20 had student bodies of more than 5,000 FTE (Full-Time Equivalent), and 16 of the 24 that had not considered such a program had student bodies of less than 5,000 FTE. Survey results suggest that requirements unique to the institution involved determine the appropriateness of the ombudsman idea. Due to a number of factors, larger state- supported institutions tend to consider the concept much sooner than small state or privately-supported institutions. The report contains a list of the 53 responding institutions, and selected data collected during the survey. (WM)

Bloomfield, M. (1992). "Developmental Variables of Undergraduate Resident Assistants when Negotiating Conflict With Peers." Dissertation Abstracts 53(02A): 177.
The role of the Resident Assistant (RA) has assumed special prominence during the last thirty years, as theories of student development have promoted the practice of peer education, particularly in residence halls. RAs have been given a long list of tasks and job expectations that can be generally categorized within peer counseling and policy enforcing functions. Some researchers and writers in the field of student development and residence hall ecology have argued that with proper training and supervision, RAs can adequately fulfill their assigned duties while simultaneously matriculate, fulfilling their own personal undergraduate academic and social needs. This assumption is presently under scrutiny, as information from cognitive development regarding late adolescent epistemology questions the readiness of these students to be able to perform simultaneously in all of their roles. In particular, the role of enforcing university rules and regulations with many floor mates who are also peers and friends presents RAs with levels of conflict that may stem from their current cognitive developmental level, thus limiting the ways they negotiate conflict during enforcement activities. The result may be a mismatch of person to task. Some undergraduate RAs may not be ready to carry out their most developmentally challenging task of enforcing campus policy with peers to whom they have ties of support and friendship. The purpose of this study is to investigate the possibility of certain behavioral trends in the ways RAs negotiate conflict with their peers while enforcing university policy based on their tested cognitive developmental level. By administering two production- type developmental assessments and one preference-type conflict mode inventory, as well as performing individual interviews of selected RAs, I examine possible mis-matches and matches of RAs with their roles, particularly that of policy enforcement with peers.

Blue, T. R. (1993). "Business of Conflict: Like No Business I Know." Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication 56(4): 38-44.
Advocates not the total resolution of conflicts staged in the classroom setting but the resolution of interpersonal issues between student as the subordinates and professors as the superiors to create positive regard for superiors and subordinates along with reciprocal learning among students and professors. Suggests enacting a "theatrical" denouement and anticlimax before the closing scenes of final examinations. (RS)

Boice, R. (1996). "Classroom Incivilities." Research in Higher Education 37(4): 453-487.

Bolding, J. T. and J. J. Van Patten (1982). "Creating a Healthy Organizational Climate." Administrator's Update: American Association of Univ. Administrators 3(3 (Win)): 1-9.
ABSTRACT: Four areas of college management responsibility are reviewed: the mission of the organization; administrator/faculty relationship; individual stress; and measuring organizational health. According to Argyris (1980) an organization updates its goals (1) as a consequence of detecting and solving routine problems, and (2) through periodical reexamination of the governing policies and values of the organization. A survey of higher education professional organizations (Boulding and Van Patten, 1980) indicates that six of the top seven faculty concerns dealt with a lack of humaneness and justice within the organization. Ways to improve administrator/staff relationships include encouraging bona fide, responsible dissent and allowing faculty representation in governance. The effectiveness of collective negotiations depends on the good will and overall consensus of all groups involved in campus governance. The following types of individual stress are addressed: burnout, role conflict, peer cohesiveness, and general morale. Signs of psychological burnout are a signal that the organization is causing problems. Faculty members are not always able to cope effectively with organizational politics. Research identifies role conflict and role ambiguity as principal sources of organizational stress (Parasuraman and Allutto, 1981). Latham and Kinne (1974) found that individuals in a healthy organization find satisfaction in working together to accomplish shared goals. Four important leadership skills to facilitate peer cohesiveness are identified, including mediating conflict and building networks. Approaches that have been used to maintain and improve morale include human potential seminars and the holistic health movement. Organizational types identified by Likert (1961) and research on the measurement of organizational health are noted. (SW)

Bompey, S. H. and R. E. Witten (1980). "Settlement of Title VII Disputes: Shifting Patterns in a Changing World." Journal of College and University Law 6(4): 317-43.
An overview is given of the mechanics of dispute resolution under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Described and analyzed are the various stages during the processing of a dispute when settlement is possible. The effects of Bakke and Weber decisions on the process are considered. (MSE)

Bond, C. (1997). Resolving Sexual Harassment Disputes in the Workplace: The Central Role of Mediation in an Employment Contract. Dispute Resolution Journal.

Borland, D. T. (1976). "Employee Relations Without Collective Bargaining." Journal of the College and University Personnel Association 27(2 Apr-May): 35-9.
While administrative personnel in many institutions are interested in specific bargaining techniques or validated grievance procedures, the author suggests that the vast majority need current information about personnel matters before collective bargaining becomes a reality on their campuses. (LBH)

Borshuk, C. (1994). "Benefits of a Peer Mediation Service: An Evaluation." Interaction 6(1): Sulement 4.
Outlines a model for evaluating university-based mediation service. To look at impact on broader community and changes in mediator and disputant self-perception.

Borshuk, C. (1995). "Peer Mediation Changes Volunteers." Interaction 7(1): 9.

Borski, B. (1995). "Implementing Controversial Programs on College Campuses." Campus Activities Programming 28(1): 28-32.
This article argues that college students and administrators rely on campus activities professionals to make informed, objective decisions about campus events and that this represents a challenge to present controversial programs to meet student developmental and educational needs. Professionals are urged to be prepared to justify such programs. Planning suggestions are offered. (MSE)

Bosworth, K. (1994). Developing Collaborative Skills in College Students. New Directions for Teaching and Learning (n59 p25-31 Fall 1994).
Social skills needed for effective collaborative learning by college students are discussed, including skills in interpersonal interaction, group building and management, inquiry, conflict resolution, and synthesis and presentation. Five instructional strategies to enhance students' collaborative skills are described: identification, demonstration, modeling, performance feedback, and reflection. (MSE)

Bourassa, D. M. (1991). How White Students and Students of Color Organize and Interact on Campus. New Directions for Student Services.
Students overwhelmingly interact with others of their own race, but such patterns can be changed and racist attitudes can be defused by facilitating new patterns of social interaction.

Bournea, R. C. (1994). Ohio State University Rocked By Racism Once Again: Students Hold Rally to Protest Offensive Jokes. Ethnic NewsWatch.

Bowser, B., G. Auletta, et al. (1993). Dealing With Conflict and Diversity in the Academic Community. Confronting diversity issues on campus, Sage.

Boyer, E. (1990). Campus Life: In Search of Community, Princeton University Press.
In this book, Boyer offers six principles of community that when combined together lead to a successful and friendly learning environment. They include: a purposeful community, an open community, a just community, a disciplined community, a caring community, and a celebrative community.

Bradshaw, D. (1993). Implementation of the University Mediation Service at the University of Manitoba, University of Manitoba.

Bray, N. J. (1999). Social Control of Administrative Impropriety: An Analysis of College and University Administrators, ERIC.
Calls for greater accountability in higher education have prompted responses from most faculty and administrators that self-regulation is the answer. This paper takes a quantitative approach to examining how administrative behavior is regulated, applying a social control perspective to the issues of sanctioning, detecting, and deterring deviance.

Brickman, W. and S. Lehrer (1970). Conflict and Change on Campus: The Response to Student Hyper-Activism, School and Society Books.

Brown, D. W. (1994). Higher Education Exchange 1994, Kettering Foundation.
Seven articles explore ways in which students, administrators, and faculty can initiate and sustain conversation about the public life they share, and about dealing with the multiculturalism of today's campuses. The articles are: (1) "Backing into the Future: Columbus, Cleopatra, Custer, & the Diversity Revolution" by Carlos E. Cortes, which examines issues of political correctness in the history curriculum; (2) "Moderating Excess: Monocultural Roots of Multiculturalism" by Benjamin R. Barber, which suggests that "honest multiculturalism" will acknowledge and explore its "monocultural roots"; (3) "Shredding the Race Card" by Eric Liu, who urges young people to extricate themselves from the 1960s agenda and create a new one for themselves; (4) "Political Correctness: On How To Begin the Discussion" by Manfred Stanley, who identifies a new "politics of empathy"; (5) "Community and Group Identity: Fostering Mattering" by Daryl G. Smith, who sees memberships and participation as important for community-building; (6) "Under the Skin" by John Lahr, who reviews Anna Deavere Smith's dramatic dialogues about race, listening to strangers, and the importance of hearing voices and not just relying on the printed word; and (7) "Dialogue To Change Conflictual Relationships" by Harold H. Saunders and Randa Slim, who sketch a political process in their international work that may be of value to campuses with deep divisions and factions. (The Smith paper contains references.) (MAH)

Brown, K. (1999). Responding to Moral Distress in the University: Coping with Moral Distress by using the Theater of the Oppressed to Identify and Resist the Sources of Distress Change.
This article describes how we have adapted techniques from Augusto Boal's participatory theater to help colleagues and us to move past victimization, denial, and numbness to respond more creatively to circumstances of moral distress in the university.

Brown, T. L. (1985). "University-Industry Relations: Is There a Conflict?" Journal of the Society of Research Administrators 17(2): 7 - 17.
The forms of university-industry relationships, the advantages to the various parties involved, and the potential conflicts and tensions are outlined. Some guidelines for finding solutions and new modes of interaction are suggested. (MSE)

Brownstein, A. (2001). Student Activists are Making Noise, but is Anybody Listening? . The Chronicle of Higher Education.
In this article, Brownstein reviews the effectiveness of student protests and demonstrations at US Colleges and Universities.

Burkhardt, J. (1994). "Getting to Yes on a Merger." Planning for Higher Education 22(3): 19-24.
The merger of the University of Detroit and Mercy College (Michigan) is chronicled from early conversations through preparation and decision making. Salient issues that had to be addressed, especially persistent conflicts, and lessons learned from the experience are noted. (MSE)

Burnett, C. W. and W. L. Matthews, Jr. (1982). "Legalistic Culture in American Higher Education, The " College and University 57(2): 197-207.
A legalistic culture has become a part of the academic community of the 1980s. Possible explanations include: what happens in the larger society is reflected in the academic subsystem, a legalistic syndrome, impact of state and federal governments, widening scope of university service, tight academic job market, efforts to democratize academe, conflicts in role perceptions, collective bargaining, and increased costs. (MSE)

Burns, R. and T. Weber (1995). Gandhi and Freire on Campus: Theory and Practice in Tertiary Peace Studies Programs. . Peace Education Miniprints Lund Univ. (Sweden). Malmo School of Education.
Over the past 20 years, the formal study of peace at universities and colleges has become an option available to many students. The development of such peace studies programs is diverse. There are a variety of theoretical and ideological/philosophical approaches to peace. However, how to develop a course that is theory-based, and to compare different theoretical orientations, has not been explored a great deal. Taking up that challenge, this paper looks at two instructors who have been responsible for a peace studies program, one through taking on and transforming an existing interdisciplinary undergraduate course and the other through developing a peace education course within a graduate education program. The ideas that inspired each educator are presented. Paulo Freire and Mahatma Gandhi, whose work for justice and social change, are featured. This paper finds that a dialogue that develops the ideas, key concepts, analyses, and actions of Gandhi and Freire (within contemporary settings, and with appropriate learning processes) provides a basis for a peace studies or peace education program. (RJC)

Burrell, N. and D. Cahn (1994). Mediating Peer Conflicts in Education Contexts: The Maintenance of School Relationships. Conflict in Personal Relationships, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
This article addresses mediation work at all levels of the education system, including the college experience. The primary example used is the mediation program started in 1983 at SUNY New Paltz. Gives example of a campus mediation training design.

Bush, R. A. B. (1987). "Using Process Observation to Teach Alternative Dispute Resolution: Alternatives to Simulation." Journal of Legal Education 37(1): 46-57.
A method of teaching alternative dispute resolution (ADR) involves sending students to observe actual ADR sessions, by agreement with the agencies conducting them, and then analyzing the students' observations in focused discussions to improve student insight and understanding of the processes involved. (MSE)

Cahn, D. (1994). Conflict in Personal Relationships, Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
"This book is organized into two parts. The first focuses on conflict on different types of couple relationships -- homosexual, cross cultural, dating but violent, engaged, and married -- and group relationships -- student peers, parents and their young children, and adult children and their aging parents. The chapters not only review past research on conflict in some relationships, but also take a significant step forward in introducing a variety of other relationship types for future research on conflict. These chapters also offer evidence that conflict is experienced differently in different types of interpersonal relationships. The second part of this book describes basic underlying principles and programs for dealing with interpersonal conflicts. Chapters in this section discuss patterns of argument in everyday life, issues associated with competence in interpersonal conflict, and mediation as a form of intervention for resolution." -Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Cahn, D. (1999). Faculty Development at SUNY: Shifting from Teaching to Learning, Annual Meeting of the National Communication Association.
This paper takes the SUNY (State University of New York) Learning Network faculty development program, which helps faculty and their students incorporate technology in their courses, the perspective of one educator who decided to participate in the program because online teaching would help him adapt to the current changes in higher education. The paper then describes the learning and student-centered approach which is one of the characteristics of online teaching. It does not present data on the effectiveness of learning via the computer or discuss issues related to online learning. To draw attention to the many ways in which teachers shift their perspective from a lecture-oriented approach to a learning-centered approach to teaching, the paper explains in detail how a teacher prepares for the course--in this case, "Interpersonal Conflict"--and how he actually teaches online. The paper suggests that advocates of online learning and traditional teaching may learn from one another. (Contains 16 references.) (NKA)

Caliguri, J. P. and e. al. (1984). "Bureaucratic Versus Loose Coupling Governance: Ownership or Chaos in Managing Conflict?" 16.
The first section of this document relates a case involving governance problems at a private education institution. The second section gives teaching notes for the use of this case in any course focusing on leadership, organizational governance, or general management or in various topical courses. In the case recounted, an institution recognized for its collegial governance and administrative team leadership began to experience management and financial problems. To deal with these problems, the Board of Governors decided to create the position of president. The first president resigned after a year; the second resigned before the end of his first year. A team of three university professors was requested by the board chairman to evaluate the second president's performance; documents were analyzed, institutional assessment interviews with the president and administrators were conducted, and recommendations to the board and its constituents were presented. The issues that emerged were related to the differing governance philosophies and leadership styles that produced conflict among the institutional participants. The teaching notes give guidelines on the teaching objectives of the case, the position of the case in the course, assignment questions, and discussion strategies. An analysis of the issues involved is also provided. Five references are listed. (DCS)

Cameron, K. S. and D. Bilimoria (1985). "Assessing Effectiveness in Higher Education." Review of Higher Education 9(1): 101-118.

Cameron, K. S. and D. A. Whetton (1985). "Administrative Effectiveness in Higher Education." 9(1): 35-49.

Campbell, E. S. (1991). "Impact of Three Forms of Mediation Training and Practice On University Students' Use of Conflict Frames, The " Dissertation Abstracts 52-08A: 220.
This study investigated whether or not students could be trained to view conflict, which necessitated the intervention of a third party, in a way which supported the use of mediation, rather than arbitration or litigation. A quasi-experimental design using a pretest- posttest data collection technique was used to compare the results obtained from four samples of students which received different types of mediation training. The four types of mediation training can be described as: (1) a twelve hour mediation training course combining lectures, discussion and role plays, (2) a twelve hour course on mediation plus the opportunity to act as a mediator, (3) a twelve hour course on mediation plus the opportunity to mediate real conflicts, and (4) a ten week academic course on "conflict resolution". Students were asked to complete a series of questionnaires which contained hypothetical dispute scenarios. Student responses were coded as "choice" frames (desired third party to decide how to resolve the conflict) or "negotiation" frames (desired third party to help the disputants come up with a solution to the conflict). The changes from "choice" frames to "negotiation" frames were tested after the administration of each training. The sample sizes in this study were too small to achieve statistical significance. However, the results suggest that it is very difficult to teach students to use a "negotiation" frame if they are predisposed to using a "choice" frame. There was a slight increase in the overall number of students who used "negotiation" frames after attending either the academic course or the twelve hour mediation session. There was a greater increase in the number of students who used "negotiation" responses after mediating real conflicts. The study suggests that education and training alone are not very effective in motivating students to change from "choice" frames to "negotiation" frames. As a corollary, the confidence levels which students had in a third party being able to either impose a successful solution or help the disputants find a satisfactory solution were measured. The results indicated that students trained in mediation lost confidence in mediation being able to successfully resolve disputes.

Campbell, T. I. D. (1997). "Public Policy for the 21st Century: Addressing Potential Conflicts in University-Industry Collaboration. ." Review of Higher Education 20(4): 357.
Considers three categories of potential collaboration conflict and their implications.

Caraway, G. A. (1989). "Grievance Mediation: Is it Worth Using?" Journal of Law and Education 18(4): 495-502.

Cardona, F. (1995). "Comparative Study of the Styles of Handling Interpersonal Conflict Among Students, Faculty, and Administrators, A " Dissertation Abstracts 57(02A): 102.
The researcher's purpose in this research was to identify and compare the differences, if any, that exist among graduate students, faculty members, and administrators with respect to conflict management styles as measured by the Rahim Organizational Inventory II, Form A, B, and C. Form A measured conflict management styles in relationship to superiors, Form B measured conflict management styles in relationship to subordinates, and Form C measured conflict management in relationship to peers. The population for this study consisted of graduate students, faculty members and administrators recruited from Tennessee State University, Western Kentucky University, and Vanderbilt University. The total population was 137 respondents, employed or enrolled during the Summer/Fall term of 1994. Data was collected by personal visits, appointments and referrals. Each participant was given a letter of transmittal with the questionnaire, ROCI II, with complete instruction and assurance of anonymity and confidentiality. An interview was additionally conducted to elicit responses from the various groups on their perception of conflict management styles. Data was analyzed with a one-way analysis of variance to test the hypothesis. Interviews were also analyzed by individual answers and compared to the ANOVA findings. Statistical significance was found in six sub-hypotheses. Faculty were found to be more compromising and avoiding in their conflict management style than students. Students were found to be more obliging and avoiding in their conflict management style than faculty members. Females were found to be more avoiding in their conflict management styles than males. The results of the statistical data and interviews rendered support for further research in the following areas: (1) studies to predict choice of conflict style among faculty members dependent upon decisional variables such as (a) desire to remain, (b) superior-subordinate congruence, and (c) protection from arbitrary action; (2) further research to find out the kinds of conflict management training among Administrators, Faculty members and Students; (3) since the research rendered an additional finding on gender differences, further research on conflict management styles among males/females with follow-up interviews is encouraged, and (4) studies could be conducted to incorporate direct observation of administrators, faculty members, and students in actual conflict situations.

Carlton, J. (1993). "Working It Out (Construction Partnering Sessions)." Successful Meetings 42(12): 102-107.
The typical partnering session lasts just 2 days, with up to 16 hours of group counseling, and costs between $6000 and $12,000. The process has proven to be effective in mediating conflicts before they arise on construction jobs. Among contractors, testimonials abound for how well partnering works. Partnering seeks to provide trust and open communication in the relationship between participants. A partnering session held over a construction job at a California college is discussed. The opposing factions come together and work out resolutions to their problems, and avoid suing each other and the school.

Carmichael, G. and M. Malague (1996). "How To Resolve Conflicts Effectively."
Conflict resolution at community colleges or other organizations requires an analysis of four situational factors: the conflict issues, the organizational setting, hierarchy and role relationships, and the personal styles of the conflicting parties. These factors yield insight into the dynamics of the conflict and provide the groundwork for ethical and productive conflict management. The identification of the issues surrounding conflicts should arise from dialogue with conflicting parties, ideally leading to the development of a shared view. Since every organization has unique rules, traditions, values, and assumptions, the organizational setting must be considered. At community colleges, for example, shared values such as the fulfillment of student goals, enhancement of learning, and support or cooperation in the workplace may provide deans with criteria for making decisions in conflict situations. While the assumption often exists that power to resolve a conflict situation lies within the formal hierarchy of an institution, at community colleges the hierarchical structure only applies within limited realms, with faculty having different roles and authority than department chairs. Finally, deans and chairs should be aware of the different approaches, or styles, that individuals take in conflict situations, including competition, collaboration, compromise, accommodation, and avoidance. Understanding the elements of conflict can help administrators adopt clear strategies for its resolution. (TGI)

Casper, G. (1998). State of University Address. Stanford Report Online Update.

Cavenagh, T. D. (1994). Alternative Dispute Resolution on Campus: Moving Beyond the Traditional Judicial Affairs Model. Legal Issues in Higher Education Conference, North Central College Dispute Resolution Center.

Chaffee, E. E., W. G. Tierney, et al. (1988). Cultural Drama of Organizational Life, The Collegiate Culture and Leadership Strategies, Macmillan.

Chait, R. P. and B. E. Taylor (1985). Harlan College (Conflict Case Study), Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges.
Adaptation of a university conflict case study prepared by Taylor in 1983

Chandler, D. B., Bruce, L. H. Nguyen, Joanna; Lee,Christy, et al. (1994). UH Mediation Services Final Report, Univ. of Hawaii.

Chandler, M. K. (1985). "Dispute Resolution in the Year 2000." Journal of the College and University Personnel Association 36(2): 16-20.
The dominant faculty dispute resolution process will continue to be negotiation between parties, but mediation will increase. Problem solving by labor-management committees and similar groups, and compulsory interest arbitration, will remain limited. Grievance mediation, although gaining in interest, will not overtake binding grievance arbitration. (MSE)

Chaney, A. C. B. (1982). "How to Establish a Campus Ombudsman." 16.

Chen, G.-M. (1992). Some Determinants of Conflict Dominance: A Comparative Study, Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association.
A study investigated the conceptual and functional meanings of the concept of conflict from the perspectives of United States culture (a low-context culture) and Chinese culture (a high-context culture). Subjects, 50 American and 48 Chinese graduate students in a midsize northeastern university, were interviewed using a semi-structured format to identify differences and similarities among seven variables pertaining to choice of dominant style in the two groups. Results indicated that: (1) there were many areas where the two groups' definitions converged and overlapped; (2) unpleasant feeling is universal in a conflict situation for both groups; (3) both groups emphasized the importance of giving assistance to their counterparts in a conflict situation; (4) responses were clustered into three general categories--from the subject's perspective, from the perspective of the subject's counterpart, and from the perspectives of personal and group interests; (5) significant differences existed between American interviewees and Chinese interviewees on face, seniority, severity of conflict, and gender variables; and (6) there was a large degree of similarity of rank order between the two groups. Findings suggest general support for assumptions originating from the distinction of low-context versus high-context cultures. Findings also suggest the universal nature of perceptions and feelings shown in conflict situations. (Six tables of data are included; 50 references are attached.) (RS)

Christo, D. H. (1989). Ethics and Higher Education. Current Issues in Education: A Bibliographic Series, Harvard Univ., Grad School of Ed.
An annotated bib. citing recent and recent-past research from 1983-1988 on the subject of ethics and higher ed. is presented. The publications listed in the bib. were selected from the ERIC database in an attempt to describe some of the literature published during the past 5 years that may be of interest to educators and philosophers concerned with the issues of ethics and higher ed. It offers a small sample of lit. available on the subject and is by no means complete, but it may serve as a point of departure for those wishing to explore the topic. A total of 47 references are cited.

Clark, B. and E. Thompson (1981). "Arbitration in American Higher Education."
Areas of concern related to grievance arbitration in higher education are examined. Selected arbitration awards, court and National Labor Relation Board rulings, and related literature are reviewed, and probable patterns and trends in arbitration are identified. Potential conflicts between collective bargaining and collegiality (self-governance) include: the variety of institutional types and variations in tenure systems, governance patterns and policies, and institutional missions; the fact that bargaining is essentially a bipartisan system while usual institutional governance processes almost always involve more than two parties; and the difficulty in identifying and defining the employer for the purpose of bargaining. Grievance procedures constitute the method by which disputes concerning application and/or interpretation of collective bargaining agreements are resolved. A review of selected arbitration awards indicates that most cases fall into the following classifications: tenure, promotion, appointment/reappointment, due process, compensation, challenge to arbitrability, work assignment/evaluation procedure, and sex discrimination. Much of the law dealing with the question of arbitrability has been shaped by what has been considered to be mandatory (wages, hours, working conditions); illegal (subjects the public employee is prohibited from discussing); and permissive (subjects that the parties are free to negotiate, including class size and teaching methods). It is suggested that grievance arbitration may provide a more efficient means of conflict resolution than litigation. Rulings and court cases are annotated and a bibliography is appended. (SW)

Clark, B. R. (1983). Values in Higher Education: Conflict and Accommodation The Wilson Lecture Series, Lecture Two, Arizona Univ. Tucson. Center for the Study of Higher Education.
Basic values in higher education and the way that values are made operational are discussed in an article and three responses to the article. Conflicts among values in American higher education and the structures of accommodation are also addressed. In addition to valuing liberal arts studies, professional education, and research, competence in these pursuits is highly valued. Achieving equality and equity for students and staff is also desired, and another set of values links together choice, initiative, innovation, criticism, and variety. Expectations of individuality and self-expression are also raised by democratic values. Finally, there is always a body of interests that pertain to the operation of the state, particular regions, and the nation as a whole. The structures of accommodation that abate conflict among contradictory values are many, within and among institutions. It is concluded that in the long run it is the structures of work and authority in higher education that largely determine who does what to whom, and what matters most about any structure are the values and principles it embodies. Structures can be studied at the level of national policy, state systems, and sectors. Brief responses to the article are provided by Hermann K. Bleibtreu, Charles E. Davis, and Fred F. Harcleroad. (SW)

Clark, T. M. (1990). "University of Wyoming Textbook Investigation: From Controversy to Academic Freedom." OAH Magazine of History 4(4): 56-60.
This student paper, a first place winner in the 1987 National History Day competition, relates events of the first college textbook controversy in the United States. In 1947, University of Wyoming trustees authorized reviewing textbooks for "subversive tendencies." Faculty and trustees successfully negotiated the controversy, resulting in academic freedom policies still in effect. (CH)

Clower, J. and G. C. Goodwin (1982). "Theory of Organizational Behavior Applied to College Housing, A " College Student Journal 16(1): 73-76.
Explains a conceptual model by Chris Argyris dealing with organizational conflict. Applies the theory to college residence halls. Suggests that resident assistants need more responsibility and authority. Urges that they be allowed more input into housing policy in order to improve living conditions and student satisfaction. (Author/JAC)

Cole, E. K. (1994). Selected Legal Issues Relating to Due Process and Liability in Higher Education, Council of Graduate Schools Washington DC.
This booklet discusses due process for institutions of higher education and how principles of due process should shape the design of institutional procedures for resolution of conflicts affecting students, faculty, academic programs, and research. The booklet defines and explains various area of conflict, the role of due process, and key legal decisions that have established accepted practice or have recently changed traditional practice. Section I is an introduction. Section II defines and explains due process as an important legal concept which should be incorporated into institutional procedures for situations that may not ever be brought to court. Section III discusses the evaluation of student academic performance. Section IV covers student misconduct related and unrelated to academic performance. Section V covers difficult or troubled students. Section VI looks at admissions fraud. Section VII handles firing or discipline of faculty or other employees. Section VIII covers three special issues: scientific misconduct, sexual harassment, hate speech, and student record privacy. Section IX discusses liability for institutions and administration or staff. Section X is a conclusion and Section XI offers a checklist for minimizing academic legal problems. Contains 54 references. (JB)

Coleman, M. and e. al. (1971). Is Conflict Utilization Underestimated?, Pittsburgh Univ. Pa. University Urban Interface Program.
This document, one of several prepared by the University Urban Interface Program at the University of Pittsburgh, deals with the nature and solution of conflict within the environment. Many professionally trained managers are ill-prepared to deal with conflict.

Collier, K. G. (1984). "Higher Education as Preparation for the Handling of Controversial Issues."
Higher education focuses largely on acquisition of knowledge and development of skills of rigorous argument, rarely giving attention to subjective perceptions or subjective value assumptions, in either the parties of a controversy or the student himself. Elements of the college curriculum, when properly developed, can help students identify subjective factors. (MSE)

Collision, M. (1990). Negotiation, Not Violence, Is the Rule Today When Students Clash With Administrators. The Chronicle of Higher Education.

Conciatore, J. (1989). Resolution of Campus Conflict Takes on Scientific Approach. Black Issues in Higher Education.

Conlin, E., B. Kumamoto, et al. (1986). Directory of Law School Dispute Resolution Courses and Programs: A Directory of Courses, Clinics, Professors, Key Contacts, Sample Course Descriptions, and Teaching Methods in Dispute Resolution. Monograph series / American Bar Association, Standing Committee on Dispute Resolution, no. 4, American Bar Association Standing Committee on Dispute Resolution.

Conlon, D. E. (1989). "Using Computer Simulations of Negotiation for Educational and Research Purposes in Business Schools." Education and Computing 5(3): 173-80.
Discussion of educational and research advantages of using computer-based experimental simulations for the study of negotiation and dispute resolution in business schools focuses on two studies of undergraduates that used simulation exercises. The influence of time pressure on mediation is examined, and differences in student behavior are observed. (19 references) (LRW)

Connoly, M. R. (2000). "What's in a Name? A Historical Look at Native American-Related Nicknames and Symbols at Three US Universities." Journal of Higher Education 71(5): 515-547.
This article explores the adoption and use of Native American-related nicknames and symbols by three US Universities: the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Miami University of Ohio, and Eastern Michigan University. Historical case studies review how the nicknames were chosen, how they evolved, and why the decision either to keep or replace the nicknames can stir bitter conflict.

Cooper, J. and K. Kempner (1991). Lord of the Flies Community College: A Case Study of Organizational Disintegration. Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, ERIC.

COPRED (1995). Global Directory of Peace Studies Programs (1995-96), The, Consortium On Peace Research, Education And Development (COPRED).
Compiled by COPRED staff and in its second edition, this is a comprehensive annotated guide to peace and conflict resolution programs in college and universities. The current edition profiles 350 undergraduate, Master's and Doctoral programs and concentrations in the United States and worldwide. Each entry describes the program's philosophy and goals, faculty credentials, key course requirements, student body composition and internship possibilities. Includes easy-to-use indices by state, country, affiliation and type of degree.

Corrigan, R. and J. Stevens (1995). "Diversity, Public Perception, and Institutional Voice." Liberal Education 81(2): 20-31.
In the context of a recent controversy over a mural at San Francisco State University (California), the president comments on several issues, including campus multiculturalism and racial issues, conflict resolution, public expectations of a university, and institutional leadership and responsibility in handling the controversy, both on and off campus. (MSE)

Costanzo, W. V. (2001). Friendly Alternatives to the Argumentative Essay. U.S. New York.
This paper presents a sequence of six classroom exercises leading to a writing assignment in which students are asked to mediate in the resolution of a conflict instead of arguing persuasively for one side.

Covey, M. K. (1983). "Relationship Between Social Skill and Conflict Resolution Tactics."
Although the importance of social skill to interactions with others has long been recognized for clinical individuals, such skills are also of benefit to non-clinical populations. To investigate the potential relationships between social skill and interpersonal conflict resolution tactics, 287 college students (140 males and 147 females) completed a measure of general social skill, the Social Performance Survey Schedule (SPSS), and a measure of tactics used during conflict situations, the Conflict-Tactics Scale (CTS). The SPSS is a 5- point rating scale of 100 items, resulting in a full-measure score of total social skill. The CTS is also a 5-point scale which has been factor-analyzed to produce subscale scores in Reasoning, Verbal Aggression, and Physical Violence. An analysis of the results revealed a high correlation between social skill and the use of verbal reasoning in the resolution of conflicts, thus implying social skill involves the use of non-aversive behaviors. Social skill was correlated negatively with verbal aggression and physical violence. Social skill was also found to influence the behavior of others, i.e., high social skills elicited reasoning, and reduced verbal aggression and violence in others. Socially skilled males used less verbal aggression and physical violence than unskilled males. Additional research should address causal relationships between social skill and specific behaviors in interactional contexts. (BL)

Cowher, S. J. (1996). "Power Development Model for Managing and Preventing Conflict, A " Guidance & Counselling 11(4): 18-22.
Describes a model for understanding and applying conflict management strategies using a personal power development theory. Adds conflict management styles to this theory to address the growing need for effective conflict management in higher education. Explains the approaches to conflict in each stage of the model and provides a case study. (RJM)

Cowley, W. H. (1960). "Three Curricular Conflicts." 19.
At his inauguration people hail every neophyte college president as the institution's new leader and ring the changes of the importance of leadership. Some, however, never become leaders because of a fact not often emphasized: they cannot successfully handle the conflicts that inevitably come to their offices. Among the conflicts that every college president must mediate, those relating to the curriculum stand highest in significance and create more emotion than those in any other area of his concern except, perhaps, those having to do with academic freedom. Three curricular conflicts with which every president must deal, at one time or another, arise from the divergent claims of: (1) general and specialized education; (2) the humanities and the sciences; and (3) teaching and research. Each must be placed in its socio- historical context, even considering the colonial colleges and the changes wrought during the last half of the eighteenth century. (Author/MSE)

Cowley, W. H. (1980). Presidents, Professors, and Trustees, Jossey-Bass.

Crawford, D. and R. Bodine (1996). Conflict Resolution Education: Program Report, U.S. Dept. of Justice.
Age Appropriate sequence for acquiring the foundation abilities of conflict resolution

Crookston, B. B. and J. M. Carlson (1971). "Third Party Mediation in Campus Disputes."
The purpose of this article is to examine some roles that could be played by a third party in the mediation of campus disputes. Discussed are conditions for effective mediation, mediation procedures, intervention strategies, and the outside mediator. (Author/CJ)

Crookston, R. K. and e. al. (1993). "Worth of a Sparrow: A Decision Case in University Research and Public Relations, The " Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education 22(Fall): 134-37.
he University of Minnesota trapped and killed birds to reduce bird damage to research grain plots. When the Animal Rights Coalition demanded the practice be stopped, the situation became a public controversy. Presents an abridged form of this case as a focus for consideration of research methods, interest group agenda, and the universities' role in representing the public. (MDH)

Crowley, C., A. Smith, et al. (1991). "Illinois Mediation Model Assuages Special Education Disputes." NIDR Forum Spring: 16-20.

Crunkleton, M. A. (1991). "Flight to Community: Pluralism, Democracy, and Higher Education, The " Liberal Education 77(1 Jan-Feb): 8-11.
As college students become more diverse, there is more conflict on campus. Elements in these conflicts include confusion about the concept of equality, the idea that difference entails opposition, and the assumption that a particular set of human characteristics is fundamentally better than another. Commitment to diversity is commitment to increased knowledge. (MSE)

Cunningham, P. J. (1984). "Taking the Conflict Out of Grievance Handling." The Journal of the College and University Personnel Association 35(Summer): 8-11.

Cupach, W. R. (1982). "Communication Satisfaction and Interpersonal Solidarity as Outcomes of Conflict Message Strategy Use."
A study investigated the relationships between conflict message strategy utilization and the criterion variables of communication satisfaction and interpersonal solidarity in situations of interpersonal conflict. Subjects were 114 college students and their "willing" conversational partners. Each subject completed a questionnaire concerning a conflict he or she had had with the conversational partner, an interpersonal conflict tactics and strategies scale, an interpersonal communication satisfaction inventory, and an interpersonal solidarity scale. Analysis of the data revealed that the use of constructive message strategies in interpersonal conflict tended to produce positive affective outcomes--specifically, interpersonal communication satisfaction and interpersonal solidarity. By the same token, the use of destructive or avoidance conflict message strategies was significantly less likely to yield satisfaction and solidarity, and might even have inhibited such outcomes. (FL)

Curle, A. (1980). "Peace Studies in Universities." World Studies Journal 1(4): 5-11.
Defines peace studies from various points of view, identifies problems often encountered in setting up peace studies programs, presents examples of the kinds of issues which might be studied in peace studies programs, and suggests activities appropriate for students of peace studies. Journal available from World Studies Resource Center, Groby College, Ratby Road, Leicestershire, England. (DB)