Brief History of the Development of Conflict
Resolution Study in Higher Education
(from The Conflict Resolution Syllabi Sampler:
1998
edited by Juliana Birkhoff, previously available from NIDR)
by Juliana E. Birkhoff
Different
Goals, Curricula, and Program Locations
1.
Undergraduate concentrations or classes in peace and conflict studies
2.
Undergraduate degree programs in peace and conflict studies.
3.
Certificate programs or adult learning programs in conflict resolution
life skills
4.
Graduate certificate programs in conflict resolution
5.
MS\MA in peace studies with some conflict resolution
6.
MS\MA in conflict resolution
7.
Specializations within professional schools
8.
Concentrations within existing MA\MS\Ph.D. programs
9.
Ph.D. in conflict resolution
Summary
Currently, peace and conflict resolution study in higher education
is characterized by diversity in approaches and goals. Thus, some
undergraduate programs include peace and conflict studies as a requirement
for a well rounded liberal arts education while others award undergraduate
certificates or majors in conflict resolution or peace studies.
Some programs, particularly in law, business and planning, focus
on teaching future professionals to handle conflict productively
as a part of their normal professional skills. Other programs are
designed to produce professional conflict resolvers.
There are several reasons for the wide range of approaches and
goals. First, an abundant and complex array of research, theory
and practice from the social sciences enriches the study of conflict.
In some cases these different perspectives produced interdisciplinary
or multi-disciplinary approaches and programs. In other situations,
however, different disciplinary and professional lenses focused
and shaped programs concentrations and how programs developed.
Different disciplinary ideologies and foci have also affected terminology.
For example, some programs are called peace and conflict studies,
others use the terms negotiation, dispute resolution, conflict management,
or conflict regulation. These different terms reflect the ways that
different disciplines view conflict and research traditions for
studying conflict and conflict handling. The terms reflect different
disciplinary stances toward theory and practice. The terms also
clearly reveal preferred viewpoints or values for conflict handling‑‑management
versus resolution, for example.
For this anthology I included courses that focused on studying
the causes and dynamics of social conflict, and the various fora
and approaches to handling conflict. In this admittedly loose and
individualistic distinction, I have included some course which others
might label as peace studies courses. However, I have not included
courses which focus on the causes of war, global order, diplomacy,
national security, human rights, futures study, international organizations,
or arms races and negotiations.
Different intellectual sources for conflict studies also contributes
to the diversity of approaches and goals. Several authors have noted
that many intellectual histories and streams combine to produce
conflict resolution studies (see Carey 1980, Baur 1981, Wehr 1986,
Kriesberg 1991, Lewicki 1996). The first intellectual stream comes
from international relations. Scholars have been studying war, peace
and diplomacy for centuries. During the last hundred years these
studies have sought to identify the patterns that contribute to
conflictual or harmonious nation state relationships. As these learnings
converged on general patterns some scholars applied these emerging
lessons to other systems. Further, scholars from other disciplines
began to borrow theories from the international realm to understanding
relationships in other social systems.
The second source for conflict studies is labor relations. Following
years of violent labor strife in the thirties, several universities
and colleges established programs to study labor management relations
(Baur 1981). These programs expanded after the federal government
passed collective bargaining legislation (Wehr 1986). These schools
studied industrial economics, laws and relationships and included
an explicit intention to apply knowledge to improve labor/management
relationships and conflict handling processes. Thus, these institutes
and departments provided early models of how to integrate multi-disciplinary
perspectives. They also contributed models of how to produce practitioners,
in this case, professional labor mediators and arbitrators.
The third source for conflict studies began in responses to the
two world wars and Indian resistance to British colonialism. Several
peace studies programs began in the 1940's and 1950's in colleges
and universities affiliated with the traditional peace churches
(Quakers, Church of the Brethren, Mennonites) (Renna 1980). These
programs legitimized the study of non‑violent ways of handling
conflict, particularly the tactics and historical use of non‑violent
resistance. Peace studies programs also raised a new generation
of scholars who specifically included ethics and values into their
teaching, research and writing. Similar to labor relations programs,
peace studies programs encouraged students and faculty to use academic
knowledge to improve social problems.
The fourth source for conflict studies connects both ideologically
and temporally with the third source. In the late 1950's, the 1960's,
and early 1970's scholars responded to racial tensions, feminist
movements, and other social justice movements (Wehr 1986, Baur 1981).
Environmental, community, racial conflicts and other social movements
led behavioral scientists to focus on social conflict and how to
handle it more productively. Faculty from sociology, social psychology
and political science departments developed classes and programs.
Interdisciplinary programs were also begun. In the public new procedures
were developed to involve the public in participatory decision making
around environmental conflicts or to provide conciliation in racial
conflicts. These new developments led a second group of law and
social science scholars in the early 1980's to evaluate the ideology
and utility of these processes for advancing social justice.
The fifth source for conflict studies evolved within the professional
schools. Law schools, school of business, government, planning and
public administration responded to student's demands for education
that realistically prepared them for their professions. Law schools
developed skills courses in advocacy, negotiation, counseling, and
listening skills. Law clinics were begun in many law schools. These
programs often moved to less adversarial methods of pursuing justice.
Similarly, managers, planners and public administrators were asking
for more skills in negotiation and informal mediation. Many professional
schools responded to these requests. Today, most law schools and
many business schools have incorporated dispute resolution into
their curricula. Several other professional schools include conflict
resolution in their offerings.
These different streams have come together to produce many approaches
and hundreds of programs in conflict studies. Over the last 25 years,
more than 300 peace and conflict studies programs have been developed
in North American universities and colleges (COPRED l995). However,
the different sources and different disciplinary perspectives have
produced great variety in program goals, curricula, and program
locations.
Different Goals, Curricula, and Program Locations
Given the history of conflict studies and the variety of sources
it is not surprising there is such diversity in program locations
and curricula. It is important, however, to understand the different
types of programs. It is not useful to measure your program, which
aims to produce teachers who can incorporate collaboration into
their classroom, against standards developed for programs which
aim to produce professional third party interveners. Different goals
require different curricula and pedagogy.
Faculty members participating in the Nova Southeastern meeting
suggested the following typology of academic programs:
1. Undergraduate concentrations or classes in peace and conflict
studies,
2. Undergraduate degree programs in peace and conflict studies,
3. Certificate programs or adult learning programs in conflict
resolution life skills,
4. Graduate certificate programs in conflict resolution,
5. MS\MA in peace studies with some conflict resolution,
6. MS\MA in conflict resolution,
7. Specializations within professional schools,
8. Concentrations within existing Ph.D.\MS\MA programs,
9. Ph.D. in conflict resolution.
1. Undergraduate concentrations or classes in peace and conflict
studies
The Global Directory of Peace Studies Programs (COPRED 1995/96)
lists 71 undergraduate non‑degree programs in peace and conflict
studies. These programs show great variety. Some of them are traditional
peace studies programs (Wehr 1979). Some of them however, mix peace
studies and conflict resolution. The non‑degree programs often
reflect the interests of one or two faculty members in the college
or university. Undergraduate concentrations, for example minors,
generally require between 12 to 21 credit hours. These programs
are not career oriented but instead prepare students with life skills
and perspectives to participate effectively in a multi-cultural
world.
2. Undergraduate degree programs in peace and conflict studies.
There are 141 undergraduate degree programs in peace and conflict
studies. Many of these programs grew out of traditional peace studies
programs. These programs are often located in private colleges or
in colleges and universities with religious affiliations. Undergraduate
majors generally require between 30 to 42 hours. Undergraduate majors
usually involve coursework, internships or service learning and
a capstone course. Some programs require students to write a major
paper to complete the program. For example, in the Program on Non‑Violent
Conflict and Change at Syracuse University, students take six core
courses and choose five electives from related disciplines. Students
can specialize in studying conflict at any level, interpersonal
to international, and can study many methods of conflict intervention.
Graduates with an undergraduate degree in peace and conflict studies
may advance to graduate schools of law, education, political science
and increasingly, graduate studies in peace and conflict. Others
find employment in international non-governmental organizations,
nonprofit organizations, community work, education or the ministry.
For more information on these programs consult the Global Directory
of Peace Studies Programs (COPRED 1995\96).
3. Certificate programs or adult learning programs in conflict
resolution life skills
Many universities offer conflict resolution programs to students,
faculty, staff and the public. Certificate or adult learning programs
are frequently workshops or short courses, commonly offered in the
summer. These programs emphasize the skills needed to effectively
manage your own conflicts. Some of these programs offer certificates
to participants who complete a certain number of courses. However,
the classes do not focus on fulfilling particular graduate degree
requirements. The goal of these programs is to produce individuals
who can identify values and interests, learn and work on prejudices,
articulate their values and interests without disregarding others,
clarify differences without antagonism, negotiate and problem-solve
with others.
Often these programs are aimed at particular audiences. For example,
the Program on Negotiation at Harvard University offers a successful
set of courses to business people. Their offerings include courses
on negotiation, organizational conflict, dealing with difficult
situations, and increasing human relations effectiveness. The Kellogg
School of Management at Northwestern University is renowned for
offering a range of courses to managers and executives.
4. Graduate certificate programs in conflict resolution
Some university programs have organized their professional education
programs into graduate certificate programs. These graduate certificate
programs usually require one or two core courses followed by several
specialization classes. These certificate programs are often organized
around the specific needs of students who wish to use their conflict
resolution knowledge and skills in their existing careers. Often
these students find that a graduate certificate gives them more
career flexibility or recognition. The University of Massachusetts
in Boston has had a certificate program in conflict resolution for
several years. Students who enter the program use their skills in
the human relations field, in schools, in the criminal justice field
and as managers. Columbia University, Teachers College has also
offered a conflict resolution certificate program for years. They
designed their program for teachers.
5. MS\MA in peace studies with some conflict resolution
There are several important distinctions between graduate certificate
programs in conflict resolution and master's programs. To begin
with, graduate certificate programs require fewer hours of study.
Master's programs typically require between 30 to 45 credit hours,
while certificate programs require between 12 to 24 credit hours.
Certificate programs, like the graduate certificate at the University
of Massachusetts in Boston, are often designed for working professionals
who require specific conflict resolution skills in their work. Therefore,
certificate programs often concentrate on skills.
Masters degrees, however, add study of peace and conflict theory
and conflict assessment or research skills. Within Masters degrees
there is often a division between programs primarily focused on
theories of peace studies with some conflict resolution and programs
that combine conflict resolution theory, practice and research.
Many of the programs that concentrate on peace studies with some
conflict resolution are housed in international relations departments.
Other programs are located in sociology or public affairs departments.
These students generally do not receive enough conflict resolution
skills training or background in conflict resolution to enable them
to become professional interveners. However, the integration of
peace and conflict studies often prepares them for policy or programmatic
work with a substantive or regional focus.
For example, the School of International Service at the American
University offers a Masters degree in International Peace and Conflict
Resolution. Students take several courses in conflict resolution
and several more traditional peace studies courses. They then choose
particular area of interest (international development, political
economy, culture and cross cultural communication). Students also
take one internship. These programs often integrate several multi-disciplinary
perspectives and intellectual traditions into creative and flexible
programs.
6. MS\MA in conflict resolution
There are eight programs that offer a Masters degree in conflict
resolution. These programs are new and still evolving, however,
all eight programs focus on training students t' be conflict resolution
practitioners. These programs include courses in conflict resolution
theory, courses that teach skills, conflict resolution assessment
and research courses and opportunities for practice through internships
and\or clinics. Students typically take between nine and 12 hours
of skills classes, nine to 12 hours of theory and three to six hours
of conflict assessment and research skills. Students also take several
elective courses in which they develop area or substantive specialties.
Faculty in these programs usually come from a range a disciplines
and professions. (See Milner and Shook 1989 for a discussion of
the difficulties in interdisciplinary program development.)
At the Nova Southeastern University meetings, faculty agreed that
masters programs in conflict resolution should teach particular
skills and certain core knowledges. Faculty agree on the importance
of the following skills: communication‑‑listening and
assertion, creative thinking, problem solving and decision making,
conflict assessment, mediation skills an procedures, critical thinking,
and ethical sensitivity. Faculty recognized that masters program
should include the following knowledges: the continuum of methods
for addressing conflict negotiation theory, problem solving methods,
the range of mediation models, ethics, and cross cultural issues.
Faculty at the Nova Southeastern University also agreed that programs
needed to develop more creative and effective ways of teaching skills
and more reliable ways of testing whether students had mastered
conflict resolution skills.
7. Specializations within professional schools
Several professional schools have integrated or are integrating
conflict resolution in' their coursework or requirements. In this
type of program students elect conflict resolution a specialization.
The courses are offered in the professional school and integrate
knowledge and skill from conflict resolution with knowledges and
skills from the profession. The concentrations or specializations
are offered in schools of law, business, planning, and social work.
For example, students in the legal studies programs in Pepperdine
University and Montclair State University study conflict resolution
within their legal studies programs. Students in business, management,
and public policy can integrate courses from the Consortium on Negotiation
and Conflict Resolution at Georgia State University into their programs.
8. Concentrations within existing MA\MS\Ph.D. programs
Similar to concentrations within professional schools, many colleges
and universities have integrated conflict resolution into disciplinary
MS, MA or Ph.D. programs. These programs vary depending on the particular
discipline and how conflict resolution got integrated into the curriculum.
Some concentrations develop as a particular focus of a faculty member
or of a particular department. For example, for years students have
been studying peace and conflict resolution at the Maxwell School
at Syracuse University and in the Department of Sociology at the
University of Colorado. The programs developed because of the interests
of the faculties at these universities. Some programs are specifically
designed as specializations. For example, faculty at the University
of Minnesota developed a minor in conflict resolution for students
enrolled in other Ph.D. programs. Student take 21 credit hours to
complete the minor. Students at Duquesne University may enroll in
the 36 credit hour MA in Social and Public Policy. Conflict resolution
and Peace studies is an elective 12-hour specialization within this
masters program. Similarly, The School of Education at George Mason
University offers a conflict resolution concentration to teachers,
school administrators and school psychologists seeking a Ph.D. in
education. Graduates from this program go back to their schools,
develop and manage conflict resolution programs, revise disciplinary
procedures, and work with the community in new ways. Specialization
programs are tailored to provide students in professional programs
or disciplinary programs with the skills and theories that will
enable them to effectively integrate conflict resolution into their
programs and professions.
9. Ph.D. in conflict resolution
Currently there are only two programs that offer a Ph.D. in conflict
resolution. A Ph.D. in Conflict Analysis and Resolution from George
Mason University requires 89 credit hours and includes theory, practice
and research. The Ph.D. program in Dispute Resolution at Nova Southeastern
University requires 82 credit hours and similarly includes theory,
practice and research. Although these two Ph.D. programs are relatively
new, they both report growing interest in their programs with many
competitive applications from the U.S. and around the world. Students
from these programs are prepared to qualify as researchers, theoreticians,
teachers in higher education and policy administrators and analysts
in the public and private sector. Graduates from both programs work
in think tanks, non-governmental organizations and universities
and are also involved in conflict resolution processes.
Summary
This brief history emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of conflict
resolution and the variety of disciplines, professions and intellectual
contributions to the growth of the study. The different approaches
and goals of these programs produces a rich variety of programs.
Although categories of programs overlap and it is difficult to place
programs in one category versus another, it is helpful to compare
programs across three basic divisions:
1. Degree programs or concentrations in the field,
2. Specialized conflict resolution courses within professional
schools,
3. Integration of conflict resolution courses with other disciplines.
Hopefully, this brief history and discussion of types of programs
will help faculty develop courses and programs and will help students
distinguish between the goals of different program As the academic
settings for conflict resolution expand and deepen the differences
in program; goals becomes more apparent. These differences across
university programs is illustrated by syllabi in this anthology.
The anthology is organized into types of classes. Faculty classified
their class for the different parts of anthology. If you have any
questions about the courses, please contact the instructor.
Continue to the
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